The invention of the wheel is often hailed as one of the most transformative moments in human history. Yet, for all its importance, the origins of this revolutionary technology remain murky. Archaeologists and historians have long debated when and where the first wheels appeared. Was it on the plains of Mesopotamia or perhaps in the fields of early farmers?

A new study offers an unexpected answer. A team of engineers and historians has used advanced computational mechanics to reconstruct the likely historical path of the wheel. By utilizing cutting-edge design algorithms, the researchers were able to simulate the incremental innovations that led from early roller-based systems to the first wheels with axles.

Their findings suggest that this essential tool may have first emerged not on open plains or trade routes, but in the tunnels of ancient Neolithic copper mines in the Carpathian Mountains, around 3900 BC.

Here’s how all of this may have taken place.

A New Look at an Old Mystery

When we think of the wheel, we tend to picture carts trundling across dusty roads or wagons pulled by oxen through fields. But the new study led by Lee Alacoque, an aerospace engineer at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, suggests the story starts in a far more enclosed place—ancient mines.

The Carpathian Mountains, located in modern-day Eastern Europe, were home to some of the earliest Neolithic mining cultures. These early miners were extracting copper ore from deep underground tunnels. It’s here, in these narrow, winding passageways, that Alacoque believes the first wheels might have been born.

The researchers argue that the wheel’s development occurred in three main stages, each solving a unique problem.

At first, these miners likely used cylindrical rollers—logs placed under heavy loads to reduce friction. The technique, simple as it was, had a major flaw: once the load rolled over the logs, the miners had to reset them. In the tight confines of a mine, constantly moving rollers forward would have been both exhausting and inefficient.

But as Alacoque’s team discovered through physics-based simulations, ancient miners likely found a clever solution: adding sockets to the bottom of their transport containers. This converted the rollers into a rudimentary cart where the load could move without constantly resetting the rollers.

The Big Breakthrough

This new system—what the researchers call “unilateral rolling”—represented a significant breakthrough. Although this method introduced friction between the roller and its socket, it eliminated the need to reposition rollers continually in front of the cart, making it more efficient for narrow, confined environments like tunnels.

The next leap came when grooves were added to the rollers, an improvement that made it possible to retain lubrication and reduce friction. These grooves were likely developed as a practical response to wear and tear, but they also set the stage for the wheel-and-axle system to emerge.

The real innovation, however, came when the miners began to modify their rollers. The team’s simulations revealed that grooves in the rollers—which may have initially formed by accident—helped to reduce friction even further. These grooves allowed the miners to apply lubricants, like animal fat or plant oils, directly into the ridges of the roller, keeping the system running smoothly. As the grooves deepened, they eventually merged into a single channel, forming the axle.

The cramped, linear structure of mine tunnels made turning unnecessary, meaning that a simple, rigid wheelset—where the wheels and axle were a single structure—was ideal. In this context, the authors wrote in their study that the mining environment played a role similar to selective pressures in biological evolution, with incremental changes building on each other until a radically new design emerged. The grooves that once allowed for smoother movement ultimately led to the formation of a fixed axle and separate wheels.

Computational Mechanics Provides the Missing Link

Alacoque and his team used a computational method known as topology optimization to simulate the evolution of early wheels from rollers. The algorithm started with a basic cylinder and progressively refined the design based on mechanical performance, eventually converging on a structure with both wheels and an axle. Through much trial and error, our ancestors would have reached the same logical conclusions.

This simulation shows how early wheels might have evolved through a series of minor modifications, each one making the design slightly more efficient. For instance, the simulation allowed the researchers to watch as these grooved rollers transformed before their eyes. The middle of the roller narrowed into an axle, while the outer portions expanded into what became the wheel. The result was a monolithic structure where the wheels and the axle were fixed together—a design known as a “wheelset.”

The resulting wheelset was less maneuverable than modern wheels, but in a mining context where straight-line movement was essential, it was a revolutionary improvement. The rigid structure minimized the need for constant roller adjustments and allowed for easier transport of heavy loads, such as copper ore, from the mine to the surface. Outside the mines, however, wheels needed to turn, leading to further innovations, like the development of the independent wheel-and-axle system.

A wheel driven by necessity

The invention of bronze brought an end to the Stone Age around 3300 BC, the prehistoric period dominated by the use of stone tools and weaponry. Sumerians may have been the first civilization to start adding tin to copper to make bronze. Bronze was harder and more durable than copper, which made bronze a better metal for just about anything. Bronze contains approximately 90% copper to 10% tin.

Copper wasn’t found just anywhere though. In Europe, deposits were scattered from Cyptos to the Italian Alps. In Cyprus, the island’s rich deposits were so plentiful that the very name of the island gave rise to the Latin word for copper, cuprum.

However, the Carpathian Mountains were home to some of the first Neolithic copper mines. As miners ventured deeper underground, hauling copper became increasingly difficult, which prompted the invention of the wheel for use in carts. Some of the earliest archaeological evidence of the wheel comes from sites bordering the Carpathians, particularly from the Boleráz culture, which dates to around 3600 BC. One of the most striking finds is the discovery of over 150 clay models of four-wheeled wagons, which were likely symbolic, as they were designed as drinking mugs.

The oldest surviving wheel is the Ljubljana Marshes Wheel, discovered in Slovenia, and estimated to be over 5,100 years old. This wooden wheel had a square hole in its center, suggesting it was part of a wheelset, where both the wheels and axle rotated as one.

While the exact details of the origin story of the wheel-and-axle may never be fully known, the study marks a significant step forward in piecing together the jigsaw puzzle. The invention of the wheel, as it turns out, wasn’t just a flash of genius but a slow, deliberate process of adaptation and refinement.

And it may have begun, not on the surface, but underground, where ancient miners, struggling with the weight of copper ore, unknowingly set in motion one of the most important technological revolutions in human history.

The findings appeared in the journal Royal Society Open Science.