When we think of animated sitcoms, complex mathematics isn’t what typically comes to mind. Yet shows like Futurama and Rick and Morty brought some hardcore science along with their humor and sci-fi shenanigans. In particular, one episode from Futurama created one of the most fascinating connections between entertainment and academia: the Futurama Theorem.

The theorem solves a fictional problem involving a mind-switching machine that cannot swap the same pair of minds twice. Using group theory, the show proved that no matter how tangled the swaps become, it’s always possible to return everyone to their original bodies by introducing two new participants who haven’t used the machine.

Let’s take it step by step.

If you don’t know Futurama, you’re missing out

Futurama debuted in 1999 as the brainchild of Matt Groening, creator of The Simpsons, and David X. Cohen, a mathematician-turned-writer. Set in the 31st century, the series follows Philip J. Fry, a slacker from 1999 who accidentally gets cryogenically frozen and wakes up 1,000 years later.

The show often revolves around stereotypical futuristic concepts (like robot uprisings and space travel) but what sets it apart is its commitment to embedding real science, math, and philosophy into its narrative.

Many of the writers on Futurama hold advanced degrees in physics, computer science, and mathematics. This created a culture where sophisticated scientific references and clever mathematical puzzles were just as important as punchlines. That’s also where the Futurama theorem comes in.

Swapping your minds

The Futurama Theorem appears in the episode “The Prisoner of Benda,” which aired in 2010 during the show’s sixth season. In the episode, two characters, Professor Farnsworth and Amy, invent a mind-switching machine that allows people to swap their consciousnesses. However, there’s a catch: the machine cannot switch the same pair of people twice.

As more characters use the machine, their consciousnesses become entangled in a web of swaps, creating a logistical nightmare.

Let’s say there are multiple Futurama characters swapping minds (if you’re not familiar with the show, the names are irrelevant):

1. Fry swaps with Leela.
2. Leela (now in Fry’s body) swaps with Bender.
3. Bender (now in Leela’s body) swaps with Zoidberg.

Characters want to get back, but chaos ensues and it’s not clear how (or if) everyone can be restored to their original bodies, given the machine’s restriction.

To answer the question, one of the show’s writers, Ken Keeler, produced a solution. Keeler, who holds a Ph.D. in applied mathematics, devised what would come to be known as the Futurama Theorem.

The Futurama theorem

Turns out, you can always return everyone to their bodies, with one catch: you need two additional participants.

The problem can be represented mathematically using permutations, which are ways to rearrange items. A brain swap is essentially a “cycle” in a permutation. For example:

• If Fry’s brain is in Leela’s body, and Leela’s brain is in Bender’s body, that forms a cycle like Fry → Leela → Bender → Fry.

Each permutation can be decomposed into independent cycles, and Keeler showed how the introduction of two auxiliary participants could systematically break these cycles and restore the original arrangement. The proof appears on a blackboard in the episode. This is actually the correct formula, so props to the writers.

Math and entertainment

At its core, the theorem leverages concepts from group theory, a branch of mathematics that studies algebraic structures known as groups. Group theory is often used in cryptography, physics, and even Rubik’s Cube solutions. In the context of the episode, each mind-swap can be thought of as a permutation—a way of rearranging a set of objects (in this case, consciousnesses).

Group theory itself is a cornerstone of modern mathematics. It plays a critical role in understanding symmetry, which appears in everything from molecular structures to the laws of physics. The Futurama Theorem serves as a playful introduction to this field, illustrating how abstract mathematical ideas can have surprisingly practical applications — at least if you’re swapping minds.

The Futurama Theorem became an instant hit among fans and academics alike. It is one of the rare examples of mathematics gaining visibility in pop culture, also cementing Futurama’s reputation as a show that respected its audience’s intelligence and dealt with some serious science.

However, Keeler himself doesn’t feel it carries enough importance to be designated a theorem and prefers to call it a proof.

Ultimately, the Futurama Theorem exemplifies how humor and intellect can coexist in media. It’s rare for a television show to venture into such academic territory, let alone craft an original mathematical proof as part of its storytelling. That’s part of the reason that makes Futurama so great.

This article was first published in 2014 and has been reedited.